Revisiting the Geo-Mythological Cartography of the Western Mediterranean: Archaeological and Morphological Correlates of ‘Lake Tritonis’ in Southern Sardinia

Title: Revisiting the Geo-Mythological Cartography of the Western Mediterranean: Archaeological and Morphological Correlates of ‘Lake Tritonis’ in Southern Sardinia

Author: Luigi Usai
Affiliation: Independent Researcher, Quartucciu (CA), Sardinia, Italy.
ORCID: 0009-0003-3001-717X
Contact:

Abstract
Classical historiography has traditionally identified the mythical Lake Tritonis and the Atlas Mountains—central locations in the narratives of Herodotus, Diodorus Siculus, and Apollonius of Rhodes—with the modern geography of North Africa. However, this consolidated model presents significant inconsistencies when comparing the hydrographic descriptions of antiquity with the arid morphology of the Maghreb. This paper proposes a geo-mythological revision based on a “Sardinian-Corsican Paradigm.” We hypothesize that the “Libyan” geography described in archaic sources refers to the Sardinian southern coast. This hypothesis is supported by the convergence of three datasets: (1) A paleogeographic reconstruction of the Cagliari wetland system as a unified, navigable basin compatible with the Lacus Tritonidis; (2) The persistence of toponymic markers such as Caput Terrae (Capoterra) and Macchiareddu (Machlyes); and (3) Crucial archaeological evidence, specifically the discovery of Cypriot-Mycenaean bronze tripods (Late Helladic IIIC) in the exact stratigraphic contexts predicted by the myth: the lagoonal site of Selargius and the mountain sanctuary of Santadi.

Keywords: Historical Geography; Geo-mythology; Sardinia; Late Bronze Age; Mycenaean Tripods; Lake Tritonis; Paleogeography.

1. Introduction: The Geographical Anomaly

For centuries, the communis opinio in historical geography has established a direct correspondence between the toponyms of primary sources (Herodotus, Diodorus Siculus) and modern North African geography. Libya (Λιβύη) is identified with the African continent, and Atlas (Ἄτλας) with the Moroccan mountain range. However, this model forces scholars to interpret detailed descriptions—such as the navigability of Lake Tritonis or its proximity to a lush “Garden”—as purely mythical or allegorical, given the lack of corresponding physical features in the Tunisian Chotts or the Libyan desert.

This paper proposes an alternative spatial analysis. We posit that the primordial toponymy was centered on the Sardinian-Corsican geological block and was only later transferred to the African continent during the Hellenistic-Roman period (a phenomenon of toponymic displacement). By applying the descriptions of Herodotus (Book IV) and Apollonius of Rhodes (Argonautica, IV) to the morphology of Southern Sardinia, a coherent micro-topographical correspondence emerges.

2. Geomorphology: The “Muddy Sea” and the Cagliari Graben

The central element of the Argonaut myth and the Platonic narrative ( Timaeus) is a vast body of water characterized by shallow depths, shoals, and mud (pélos), which traps ships and requires a specific “narrow passage” to exit into the open sea.

2.1. The Paleo-Hydrography of Cagliari  
The Campidano Graben in Southern Sardinia terminates in a vast wetland system comprising the modern lagoons of Santa Gilla and Molentargius. Geological data (Ardau et al., 2002; Orrù et al., 2014) confirm that during the Late Bronze Age (approx. 1200 BC), relative sea levels and sedimentation rates created a configuration distinct from the present day.
Instead of separated ponds, the area likely functioned as a unified, estuarine lagoon system fed by the Cixerri and Mannu rivers. This morphology perfectly matches the description of Lake Tritonis: a large, enclosed body of water connected to the sea by a difficult, shifting channel (steiòn póron), prone to silting a “muddy trap” for ancient keeled vessels.

3. Archaeological Evidence: The “Smoking Gun”

The strongest argument for this re-identification is not merely philological but material. The myth of the Argonauts explicitly describes the gift of a bronze tripod to the local deity (Triton) on the shores of the lake to ensure safe passage. If the Sardinian hypothesis is correct, archaeological records should show evidence of high-status Aegean ritual objects in this specific area.

3.1. The Tripod of Selargius (The Lagoon Context)       
Excavations at Selargius (specifically the Su Coddu/Canelles site), located on the paleo-shores of the Cagliari lagoon system (proposed Lake Tritonis), have yielded fragments of bronze rod-tripods. Typological analysis confirms their Cypriot-Mycenaean origin (Late Helladic IIIC), dating them to the Final Bronze Age (12th–11th century BC). The presence of such specific prestige items in a Nuragic context confirms direct interaction with Aegean navigators exactly where the myth places the Argonauts’ landing.

3.2. The Tripod of Santadi (The Atlas Context)  
Furthermore, the myth associates the lake with a nearby mountain range (Atlas). In the Grotta Pirosu-Su Benatzu at Santadi, located in the Sulcis mountains (proposed Mons Atlas), another bronze tripod of Cypriot-Mycenaean tradition was discovered in a ritual context (“Hall of the Treasure”).
The triangulation is precise: high-status votive tripods of the correct era appear in both the lagoonal settlement and the mountain sanctuary, mirroring the mythical geography of the Tritonis/Atlas complex.

4. Toponymic Stratigraphy: Persistence of Memory

While etymology can be debated, the spatial clustering of specific toponyms in the Sulcis-Campidano area offers statistically significant correlations with the classical sources.

• Capoterra (Caput Terrae): The town overlooking the lagoon bears a Latin name meaning “Head/End of the Land.” In a pre-cartographic worldview, this promontory likely marked the limit of the safe ecumene before the open “Atlantic” sea (the Western Mediterranean).
• Macchiareddu (Machlyes): Herodotus mentions the Machlyes tribe living on the shores of Lake Tritonis. The modern industrial district of Macchiareddu, situated on the lagoon’s western edge (near the Cuccuru Ibba archaeological site), may represent a phonetic fossil of this ethnonym.
• Fruttidoro: Located in the plain of Capoterra, this modern toponym (“Golden Fruits”) persists in an area described by pedological studies (Vacca, 2014) as having exceptional soil capability. It geographically coincides with the mythical location of the Garden of the Hesperides: a fertile plain protected by the Atlas (Sulcis) mountains and facing the setting sun.

5. Discussion: The Sardinian-Corsican Paradigm

The application of the “Sardinian Grid” resolves the crux desperationis of classical geography.

1. Triangulation: Diodorus Siculus places the Atlas, the Ocean, and the Lake Tritonis in immediate proximity. This is impossible in the Maghreb (where the Atlas is far inland) but accurate in Sardinia (Sulcis Mts + Gulf of Cagliari + Lagoons).
2. The “Atlantic” Ocean: We propose that the Oceanus Atlanticus of archaic sources referred to the Western Mediterranean basin surrounding the Sardinian-Corsican block (the Insula Magna), not the ocean west of Gibraltar. The title “Atlantic” derives from the island’s presiding mountain/deity (Atlas/Sulcis).

6. Conclusion

The convergence of geomorphological data (the muddy paleo-lagoon), archaeological evidence (Mycenaean tripods in situ), and toponymic stratification suggests that the “Libyan” narratives of the Greek archaic period were originally descriptions of Southern Sardinia.
The identification of the Cagliari wetland system with Lake Tritonis is not merely a speculative adjustment but a falsifiable hypothesis supported by material culture. We urge further stratigraphic investigations in the Capoterra and Santa Gilla areas to recover further evidence of this proto-historic interface between the Aegean and Nuragic worlds.

References

• Ardau, F., et al. (2002). Geophysical surveys in the Capoterra coastal plain. 8th EEGS-ES Meeting.
• Lo Schiavo, F., et al. (2009). Oxhide Ingots in the Central Mediterranean. Rome: AGAT.
• Orrù, P. E., et al. (2014). Coastal mobility and sea-level rise in the Gulf of Cagliari. Quaternary International.
• Usai, L. (2024). Localizzazione del leggendario Giardino delle Esperidi a Fruttidoro di Capoterra [Preprint]. Zenodo. doi:10.5281/zenodo.13755822
• Vacca, A., et al. (2014). The Land Unit and Soil Capability Map of Sardinia. EGU General Assembly.